East of Sweden:

Norse Ambitions in Eastern Europe and Beyond During the Medieval Period (Part 1)

When the Norse exploded out of the stygian Scandinavian woods in the 8th century many sought plunder in the comparatively rich lands of England & France. These lands were ideal since undefended monasteries and prosperous towns sat on the coast or the riverine systems that drained into the North Sea. From these “smash & grab” operations and later settlement comes the Western perspective and experience of the Viking Age. However, the Norse tide didn’t only wash over the burgeoning kingdoms of Western Europe, but the wild lands east of the Baltic.

Where England & France had silver and productive agricultural land, the taiga was sparsely populated & had poor soil quality. However, the land was rich in timber, wax, honey, and furs. Perhaps the most valuable feature of the land were the rivers that crisscrossed the region and offered access to the Black & Caspian Seas. With only a portage or two a ship could sail from Sweden to the southern shores of these seas, controlled by the fabulously wealthy Byzantine Empire & Muslim Caliphate. The riches of these lands far outshone the backwaters of the North Sea and the prospect of finding wealth raiding or trading in the markets of the Orient sent many longships East. 

However, the journey was dangerous; hostile Slavs charged from the woods, Khazar riders thundered across the steppes, and the churning water of the Dnieper cataracts dashed boats on the rocks. To counteract these dangers the line between merchant, raider, and warrior blurred. These men built forts & outposts to control key trade routes & sailed in heavily-armed bands, stealing when possible, trading when not. 

The intrepid Norsemen, straining against the current with their oars, were called róðr. This referred to rowing or the fleet levy that Norse warlords would organize for coastal defense, trade, or large-scale raiding. These activities so defined the men that traveled from Scandinavia to Eastern Europe that it developed as a general term for Norsemen in Slavic lands. Over the centuries this would morph into the word “Rus” and describe the states & people of the region. Today “Russia” and “Belarus” remain linguistic markers of the impact these Norse adventurers & colonists had on the region.

Guests from Overseas by Nicholas Roerich

And so for generations waves of raiders, merchants, and settlers made their way south, the tide inching slowly down these critical trade routes, attacking, subjugating, & co-mingling with the Slavic tribes. The stockades and trading posts that dotted the waterways of Eastern Europe soon developed into towns & cities, exacting tribute from the neighboring Slav tribes & supercharging the increasingly lucrative trade routes. These settlements transformed into principalities and then a unified kingdom ruled over by the Grand Prince of Kiev; the great city on the bluffs overlooking the Dnieper River. 

By the middle of the 9th century Norsemen were making their way to Miklagård; “Big Wall,” Constantinople. These men didn’t always come to trade. Byzantine sources record two large attacks, one in the 830s and one in 860 AD. Here the Norsemen met their match. Unable to defeat the Byzantines, a status quo developed over the following century. The Rus, the emerging nation of Slavic, Norse, & Finnic people who populated the dense woodlands & swamps of Eastern Europe, managed to earn lucrative trade concessions in the unrivaled trade entrepôt of Constantinople. This was in exchange for mercenary work in the Byzantine Army & heavy regulation of their mercantile activity. 

The trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, by A. Frolov

Treaties between the Byzantines & Rus survive from this period. These treaties followed Rus attacks on Constantinople (907 & 941 AD) organized to plunder the fabulous city, extort tribute, and procure even more favorable trade agreements. These documents are preserved in the Russian Primary Chronicle and are a wealth of information in understanding the character of the Rus & their relationship to Byzantium.

The Byzantines, orderly & unwilling to put up with the merchant-raider duality of their northern neighbors, set out to regulate their relationship. A Rus merchant colony was established near the suburb of Saint Mamas, just north of Constantinople. Rus merchants were only allowed to enter Constantinople escorted by imperial officials, unarmed, and in groups of fifty or less. The merchants would present their charters from Kiev & be registered by imperial officials. The complexity of this verification system shows the difficulty the Byzantines had in distinguishing merchants & raiders as the presentation Norse adventurers adopted was often opportunistic. 

These treaties also delineated maritime law, fishing rights, and mercenary contracts. The Byzantines were impressed by the martial skill of these strange men from “Thule,” and almost immediately began hiring them as marines. It is recorded that 700 Varangians served in the Byzantine navy during the failed 912 AD expedition to reconquer the island of Crete. These warriors proved their worth and became a regular feature in the Hetaireia, the “Byzantine Foreign Legion,” a regiment of professional soldiers recruited from foreign mercenaries. This unit served as the bodyguard of the Emperor and was the precursor to the more famous Varangian Guard. 

The text of the treaties also contain reference points with which to understand the changes occurring in the Kievan Rus over the 10th century. The 907 AD Treaty has 15 names listed for the Rus delegates. Two names are Finnic in origin while the rest are clearly Norse. To seal the oath the Byzantine representatives are instructed to kiss the cross and the Rus to swear by their arms to the pagan gods Perun & Veles, Slavic deities. This worship of Slavic gods might be an anachronism in the Primary Chronicle, it is more likely they swore to the Norse versions of these archetypes. The 945 AD Treaty contains 76 names for the Rus delegation, 12 from the royal family themselves. Three of these names, Sviatoslav, Volodislav, and Predslava are clearly Slavic. The rest of the delegates have Norse names, excepting three with Finnic names. Equally informative is that when sealing the treaty with an oath a portion of the Rus swear to Christ. These changes demonstrate the rapid political and social developments occurring in the Rus during the first half of the 10th century.

In the second half of the century the Rus will explode onto the international stage as a fully realized power. The Rus will undertake massive military operations to vanquish their enemies & pursue empire-building, meld their disparate ethno-cultural groups into a distinct identity, and search for a religious creed to bind them. The lands of the Rus will no longer be a simple conduit between Scandinavia and the glittering realms of the Byzantines and Muslims, but a land unto itself. Our next article will cover this electrifying tale.